Native Plants, Non-Native Plants, and Weeds in Permaculture Zones 1 through 5

By Michael Pilarski, Friends of the Trees Society

Michael Pilarski is an inter-disciplinary plant enthusiast who combines the perspectives of permaculture, native plants, native habitat restoration, agriculture, agroforestry, forestry, ethnobotany, and wildcrafting.

The following article is my personal interpretation. There will be differences of opinion among other permaculturists; and there will be always be exceptions to these generalizations. This is a brief introduction to a wide-ranging topic and is meant to stimulate further discussion and elucidation.

Permaculture is a holistic design science for creating sustainability with objectives such as: producing food locally with minimal outside inputs; healthy ecosystems; building soil; housing based on local, renewable resources; ending pollution and erosion, etc. Permaculture is site-specific and client specific so every system will be different. There is no blanket formula.

The invasive plant question in permaculture

There exists a wide range of opinion within the permaculture movement on the topic of planting potentially invasive plants (or known invasive plants). Some people would say we should never plant them; others would use them with care and monitoring (and control if necessary); others would encourage plants, or other organisms, to go feral if they felt they were useful additions (for human use) to the local ecosystem. Discussing this question is one of the reasons for holding the Native Plants and Permaculture Gathering at Lost Valley Center. This article is meant to bring up some of these issues to help create a context for the gathering. They are points to discuss, not a proclamation.

I believe that permaculture people should be well informed about invasive species in general and local, invasive species in particular. If we are going to plant or recommend planting new species in our systems we should do so from a position of knowledge. We might choose not to use species that are currently invasive in our region, or which have gone invasive in similar climates elsewhere in the world, or which research indicates could go invasive.

Another reason to know invasive species is that we may have occasion to detect an early infestation of a new species and can lead the effort to eradicate it before it gets well established. The easiest time to get rid of a new weed is soon after its initial appearance.

Zonation

Zonation is considered one of the primary principles in permaculture. Zone analysis, design, and management can be applied at all scales. I have used this permaculture zone principle for design at the following scales: inside a house, yard, homestead, small property, large property, town, city, county, island, and nation.

Inter-penetrating corridors

Zones are not necessarily linear, i.e. adjoining each other in order. Zones can be irregular, discontinuous, and out of order. Penetrating corridors from zones 3, 4, or 5 can reach into the lower zones, sometimes following riparian zones or topographical features.

Permaculture Zone 1

Characteristics: This is the most intensively managed area in the landscape. It usually encompasses part or all of the home, yard, urban business areas, and sometimes along well-traveled routes of foot traffic, e.g. between the garage and the house. Zone 1 is usually irrigated and intensively planted with a wide diversity of food, medicinal, and other useful plants. Two other major themes are: a) aesthetics (beautiful as well as productive); and, b) environment amelioration, both for the house and outside environment, e.g. shading and cooling the house in hot parts of the year; windbreak; and reducing house heat loss in cold periods.

Non-Native Plants: Usually a majority of non-native plants. High value plants. Marginally tender plants are usually found in zones 1 and 2, but tender plants should only comprise a small component of the system.

Native Plants: Native plants are often, but not always, deliberately included, usually to meet production or functional uses as outlined above. But some clients' main goal can be to create native plant habitats.

Weeds: Few weeds are allowed due to the intensity of care. Some people may prefer to allow some useful weeds such as dandelion for edible greens and/or medicinal roots.

Permaculture Zone 2

Characteristics: Usually adjoins zone 1. On the personal homestead scale it is the area of the vegetable crop staples, berry/fruit production, and some small livestock production. This is generally where most outbuildings, barns, and chicken coops (if present) are located. In larger settlements it corresponds to the intensive market-garden areas adjoining (and feeding) urban areas. It would usually include some livestock production (eggs, milk, meat) because permaculture systems integrate livestock into food cropping systems. Zone 2 can also include small parks and well-maintained areas in urban landscapes. Zone 2 is visited frequently by humans and is only slightly less intensively managed than zone 1. It would also include lawns. Note that permaculture would replace 80 to 90% of lawns with more ecologically and economically productive plant systems. Lawns used for playing, lounging and social interaction should be sized to fit real needs.

Non-Native Plants: As in zone 1, there are many non-native food and ornamental plants.

Native Plants: Native plants should always be incorporated into zone 2 systems for products, aesthetics, landscaping, and functional services. Permaculture encourages the increasing use of native foods, and replacing non-native plants with natives. The degree of non-native vs. native plants will vary depending on the individual practitioner and the client(s)' desires. Some people will want most, or all, of their zone 2 to be native plants, sometimes for habitat restoration and sometimes for the goal of native, low-input, low-maintenance landscaping.

Weeds: As in zone 1, intensive management controls non-wanted weeds so there are few weeds. Weed control is not as absolute as in zone 1 because of the larger areas involved.

Permaculture Zone 3

Characteristics: At the homestead scale, this is the area of extensive field crops, animal grazing, and intensive woodlots. It is farther away from the house. It may be discontinuous and may or may not be adjoining zone 2. Management is less intensive. Some areas may not be visited for weeks at a time. Generally there are fewer inputs such as fertilizer and irrigation. At the community level this includes the more extensive agricultural systems past the market-garden area. In urban areas this would also include less frequented areas of larger parks.

Non-Native Plants: A large proportion of the crops would usually be non-natives. Permaculture emphasizes well-adapted, hardy crops, with a reliance on perennials. Some of these hardy, well-adapted non-natives have the capacity to propagate and persist with low inputs and maintenance. Such crop species are sought by permaculturists. Some of these low-maintenance species are, or could be, invasive. This is probably the point of most contention between native plant enthusiasts and permaculturists. To their credit, permaculturists make a point of observing ecosystem and species changes in all the zones and would usually observe any invasiveness quickly. They may, or may not, consider a desired plant’s invasiveness as something to be controlled.

Native Plants: Native plants and native habitats need to be much expanded in this zone. Permaculture promotes planting native plants as crops such as elderberry, chokecherry, trailing blackberry, and camas (in the Pacific Northwest). Native plants are very important for their ecological services such as habitat for beneficials. Maintaining healthy native plant ecosystems in zone 3 is important for the healthy checks and balances of the web of life -- mammals, birds, arthropods, soil micro-organisms, fungi, etc. These all contribute to overall ecosystem stability, including the crop areas. This reduces pest impacts overall. Permaculturists would add many more native plantings when adapting current agricultural practices, i.e. we would take some agricultural land out of production and plant it to natives for the long term. These native plantings would often follow natural riparian zones, slopes, fencerows, roads, etc. Existing native remnants would be given enrichment plantings of additional natives to increase biodiversity, health, and extent of these wild areas.

Weeds: Some weeds are tolerated, i.e. not combated. Where weed control is desired, it is by hand, mechanical, livestock, or cultural control. Some permaculturists use judicious application of herbicides for weed control, while others are totally against herbicide use. Permaculturists are trained to look for economic uses of weeds, "turning the problem into an opportunity."

Permaculture Zone 4

Characteristics: Zone 4 at the homestead level is lightly managed forest and grazing areas and natural areas left to their own devices with some wildcrafting. Wildcrafting is an important production of this zone. Most of zone 4 has had various levels of disturbance. Restoration and production are both goals in zone 4.

Non-Native Plants: Little planting of non-natives is done in this zone. Almost all, or all, plantings would be native plants.

Native Plants: Native plants are the basis for this zone, including the preservation and enhancement of natural habitats. If not already pre-existing, then increasing native plants is a major theme. Management is light-touch. Livestock grazing, if allowed, is carefully watched so as not to overgraze. Sustainable forestry practices are observed. Habitat restoration is a desired goal in zone 4 for most permaculture systems.

Weeds: Weeds are discouraged. Control is by non-herbicide methods as outlined in zone 3. If weeds are already a major problem on the site, then thoughtful and inexpensive methods are primarily used. Permaculture usually focuses on getting zones 1, 2, and 3 under control before doing much in zone 4. Weed control in zone 4 areas is seldom cost-effective and most landowners would need to be subsidized by volunteer labor or public funds.

Permaculture Zone 5

Characteristics: This is the wild, unmanaged zone. It is to inform us of the benchmarks of what is truly native. Ideally this area would have no harvest for products including no wildcrafting. It is the equivalent of wilderness, natural research areas, and botanical preserves.

Preserves need to be set up at all scales of the landscape. All landowners are encouraged to set up a zone 5 part of their yard, farm, homestead or property. This may need to be planted from scratch or the wildest existing part of the property is set aside. If starting from scratch or in a heavily impacted system, then work will be needed for years to establish a healthy native plant community (and associated organisms). This is the zone where permaculturists and native plant restorationists are most in agreement.

Non-Native Plants: Non-native plants are never planted in this zone.

Native Plants: Existing native plants are encouraged. Additional native plants are planted or seeded in. Emphasis is on what would naturally grow there and using local genotypes for planting. Careful observation and study of native vegetation literature is called for.

Weeds: Weeds are controlled or eradicated where possible using non-herbicide methods.

More thoughts on weeds

* Weeds (non-native, invasive plants) are just a symptom of the real cause. The real cause is ecologically-destructive land-use practices by humans.

* The cure for weeds is not herbicides. Herbicides only compound the problem as well as being harmful to the ecosystem.

* The cure is more humans tending the landscape: hand control of weeds in conjunction with utilizing nature's successional pathways as well as other non-herbicide controls.

* Some methods used to control various kinds of weeds:
A) Pigs. B) Grazing. C) Browsing. D) Mowing. E) Smother crops. F) Clean cultivation. G) Flame. H) Hand hoeing. I) Hand pulling. J) Digging. K) Cutting off crown. L) Persistent cutting back. M) Organic mulch such as chips, bark, hay, straw.  N) Black poly mulch. O) Opaque poly mulch (solarization). P) Weed Fabric. Q) Irrigate. R) Flood. S)  Dry out. T) Change soil pH. U) Biological control. V) Organic herbicides.  X) Chemical herbicides (not recommended).

* New weeds with small numbers are much more liable to be controlled than widespread abundant species.

* There is a huge amount of restoration work needed pretty much everywhere. This includes planting lots of native plants.

* Many weeds have economic uses. Harvesting them for economic uses can be part of the control strategy.

* Destroying weeds is usually futile unless they can be replaced by more desired species, usually natives, but in some cases by more useful, less noxious non-natives. To kill a weed and not replace it with a desirable plant means that nature will fill the disturbed niche with the same weed or a worse one.

* Many restoration projects and weed control projects do not allocate enough resources to follow-up to ensure success. Not only does replanting with desired species usually need doing; the new plants have to be given proper follow-up care so that they will succeed. Better to treat 10 acres properly and give follow-up care so a desired planting replaces undesirable weeds, rather than killing 100 acres and having it all revert back to weeds.

* Permaculturists plant a wide diversity of useful plants, some of which are capable of naturalizing and some of which already are in that locality. Permaculturists have a responsibility to not introduce new plants that are likely to become new noxious weeds.

* What is an invasive plant in one climate may not be invasive in another. We need a master database of plants which have become invasive and in what range of habitats, as well as a ranking of their degree of noxiousness.

* Many weeds are doing useful ecological services and these should be recognized. Examples are feeding wildlife and birds, slowing erosion, building soil, etc.

* We should recognize that some non-native plants which are doing good ecological services should be allowed to remain in some habitats, generally those close to human habitation -- for instance, wild plum and apple trees around towns.

* In many cases, complete eradication of a weedy species is not possible; the species must be lived with to one extent or another.

* Particular weeds are indicators of certain soil conditions. They have use as "indicator plants."

From a permaculture approach, weeds (invasive, non-native plants) are indicators of ecological change, present opportunities, and in some cases are controlled. Weeds are taking up valuable real estate. How can they be replaced with species that are more beneficial to humans and/or more beneficial to the ecosystem? The problem with a lot of weed control is that it is mostly about "kill' and not enough about "replace." 

* Weeds should not be hated but instead understood. Even as we try to control them (limit them) we should also try to benefit from them. One permaculture saying is "Turn your problems into resources."

Perhaps I am a weed: subsisting outside the formal economy…filling a beneficial role but not fully understood by "The System"…a thorn in the side of The System…not native, but now living here and reproducing. 

 

Looking for collaborators . . .

Wildcrafting Weeds in the Pacific Northwest.
This article is the beginnings of a book I am working on.
The book will include information on:
* weeds of economic value for medicine, food, fiber, essential oils, or other uses;
* how to harvest and process them;
* ecological roles of the weed in the landscape; and,
* control with non-herbicide methods.
Currently there are 6 people collaborating. We hope to have something published by Christmas 2007. Would anyone else care to participate in this project? We could particularly use help with internet research and book design/layout. Most work can be done at your location.

Michael Pilarski, Friends of the Trees Society]
PO Box 474, Hood River, Oregon 97031
541-386-6052, 360-927-1274 cell
friendsofthetrees@yahoo.com
www.friendsofthetrees.net

 

References

Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawaii: Management and Research. Charles P. Stone et al. 1992. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, Honolulu. This was the state-of-the-art book for Hawai`i when it was published. A huge book, 887 pages. Not for the faint-hearted.

American Wildlife & Plants: A Guide to Wildlife Food Habits. Alexander C. Martin, Herbert S. Zim and Arold L. Nelson. 1951. Dover Press edition 1961. 500 pp. The food and feeding habits of more than 1,000 species of birds and mammals. This is followed by 300 plant species and which animals consume which plant parts. This is the classic reference book in its field. The important thing to note for this for this book in relation to weeds is that it gives wildlife food value for some weed species.

Common Weeds of the United States
Identification guide, no information on control. Available from Acres, USA

Handbook of Edible Weeds. James A. Duke. 1992. CRC Press. 246 pp.

Handbook of Hawaiian Weeds. E.L. Haselwood and G.G. Motter. 1966, expanded revised 2nd edition.  490 pp. Univ of Hawai`i Press. Mostly line drawings and botanical descriptions. Propagation, habitat, history and notes. Very slim on the notes but if you permaculture in Hawai`i it is a must-have.

Invasion Biology: Critique of a Pseudoscience. David Theodoroupolos. 2003. Avvar Books, 15245 Broadway St., Blythe, California 92225. 236 pp. The most eloquent defense yet of invasive plant species.

Invasive Species in the Pacific Northwest. Edited by P.D. Boersma, S.H. Reichard and A.N. Van Buren. 2006. Univ. of Wash. Press. 285 pp. $29.95

Permacopia: Permacopia III: The Weeds: The Plant Species NOT Appropriate for Hawai`i. 216 pp. D. Hunter Beyer and Dr. Franklin Martin, 1st edition 2002. 4th edition. November 2003. Available from D. Hunter Beyer, PO Box 374, Volcano, Hawai`i,  96785.  3 volumes: $20/$25/$25. The best example to date of a weed book that looks at native and non-native species from both conservation and permaculture perspectives.

Range Plant Handbook.  1937. W. Dayton, et al. Forest Service USDA. 500 + pp. Probably still the best overall treatment on the topic of livestock forage value of Western US range plants. Also gives information on notable plant species poisonous to livestock. Mostly native plants but some weeds are considered.

Small Farm Weed Control: An Annotated Bibliography. J.A. F. Compton. 1982. Intermediate Technology Development Group. 170 pp. An extensive bibliography with the main focus being paddy rice, humid tropics, and semi-arid tropics.

Solving Weed Problems: How to Identify and Eradicate Weeds Effectively from your Lawn & Garden. Peter Loewer. 2001. The Lyons Press. Includes herbicide controls, but most information is by other control methods. Up-to-date. Small scale approach.

Steel in the Field. All aspects of mechanical weed management. Available from Acres, USA

Weed'em and Reap: A Weed Eater Reader. Roger Weisch. Falcon Guide. 2006. A humorous exploration of edible weeds and native plants. Easier to remember than straight facts. A contemporary book.

Weeds and What They Tell. Ehrenfried E. Pfeiffer.  Available from Acres, USA. One of the classic texts about weeds as indicator plants. By a student of Rudolf Steiner.

Weed Flora of Iowa. L H. Pammel and Charlotte M. King. 1926. Iowa Geological Society. Bulletin No. 4. Revised edition. 683 pages. Much of the control information is pre-herbicide. A useful set of appendices.

Weeds. Walter Conrad  Muenscher. 1948. Macmillan Co, NY.  579 pp. One of the classic texts for North America.  The many line drawings are good quality. The most important part of this book today is that it gives non-chemical control methods for many hundreds of species. 2,780 entries. In fact it hasn't mentioned herbicides at all in my reading thus far.

Weeds and Why They Grow. Jay L. McCaman. Acres U.S.A.

Weeds — Control Without Poisons. Charles Walters.
Specifics on a hundred weeds. Available from Acres, USA

Weeds: friend or foe? An illustrated guide to identifying, taming and using weeds.  Sally Roth. 2002. Readers Digest.
175 pp. This is the closest book I have seen to the book I am working on (MP). It is written for the suburban gardener, but nonetheless is a thoroughly delightful and useful book.

Weeds of the West, Tom. D. Whitson, et al. 5th edition 1996. University of Wyoming.  One of the largest color photo field guides available.

Northwest Weeds. Ken Taylor. 1990, Mountain Press Publishing Co. 177 pp. One of the best color photo field guides available for the region.

Weeds of Eastern Washington. Xerpha M. Gaines. 1972. Camp-Na-Bor-Lee Association. Davenport, WA. 350 pages. A good ID book to have if you live in eastern Washington.

Weeds of the Northern US and Canada. France Royer and Richard Dickinson. 1999. Lone Pine Publishing. Focused on Canada and hence, the northern tier of states.

Wild Plants of Seattle, Arthur Lee Jacobson, 2001, www.arthurleej.com Seattle, the best ID book for weeds in the Puget Sound region. Excellent example of a local flora which includes all non-native species as well as all native species. Arthur is an edible weeds expert as well.

Wildly Successful Plants. Lawrence J. Crockett. 1977. Collier Macmillan, NY. 268 pp. She covers 100 common weeds. Nice ink drawings for identification. The best part is her extensive notes on each species including lots of info on uses. Each species has short notes on control, both herbicide and non-herbicide control measures. This book is similar to the one I am working on (MP). But Crockett's book will surpass mine in a number of fields and will make a good companion volume.

 

A bit of personal experience with farm weeds 

Like most practicing farmers, I have to manage for the weeds in my fields. There are weeds in my area that are not in my field and which I maintain vigilance for, such as field bindweed (Convolvulus arvense). If bindweed appears in my field I deal with it thoroughly and watch that spot like a hawk to make sure I got it all. There are some weeds, such as grasses, which I try to keep to a minimum although total eradication is virtually impossible. There are other weeds which I encourage when they show up and let them reseed (within reason) such as yellow dock (Rumex crispus) as I have a large demand for the fresh and dry root for its medicinal properties.  It is my typical strategy to do clean cultivation and/or mulching in the spring and summer months of a new planting so that the weeds do not compete with my young plants. Late in the summer or early fall I let some of the weeds grow to give a ground cover as the crop plants are now well-established. It is almost impossible to have a weed-free situation in a cultivated field of any size. The trick is how to use the weeds selectively and to your advantage. Sometimes I bring in new weed species deliberately, but mostly I manage the ones that are already there.

The line between crop and weed, or between volunteers and weeds, are fine ones sometimes. One example is motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), one of my non-native herb crops. When I let motherwort go to seed its seedlings become very weedy in that part of the garden. It has been known to be invasive in the Northeast and Northwest US but is usually only a minor element in the system. I have only encountered it in the wild several times. I put up with motherwort's hassle as a weed in my cultivated ground because I want it as a crop. I never have to start it in a greenhouse again as I just transplant volunteer seedlings. In some cases I let motherwort volunteers grow in situ because they have landed in an unoccupied niche I am willing to let them have.

At my previous herb farm in Twisp, Washington, creeping white clover (Trifolium repens) and black medic (Medicago lupilina) were two of my common weeds. They were a real hassle in rhizomatous herb crops such as meadow arnica, pennyroyal, and skullcap. But they were useful ground covers and nitrogen fixers under well-established, tall herbaceous perennials and under trees and shrubs.

 

Master list of weeds to be covered in Wildcrafting Weeds in the Pacific Northwest:

87 species this version 12/16/06

~ = Listed in the book "Plant" by Janet Marinelli, in their list of world's worst 247 invasive plant species. Nine are on our list.
+ = Listed in the IUCN's world's worst 100 invasive species (which includes all other life forms as well as plants). One from our list: Japanese Knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum)

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
Amaranth, Pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus, other sp.)
Asparagus (Asparagus officinale)
Baby's Breath (Gypsophila paniculata)
Bindweed, Field (Convolvulus arvensis)
Bindweed, Hedge  (Calystegia sepium)
Bittercress, Shotweed (Cardamine sp.)
Bittersweet Nightshade (Solanum dulcamara)
Black Medic (Medicago lupilina)
Black Nightshade (Solanum nigrum)
Blackberry, Himalaya (Rubus armeniacus, syn. R. procerus and R. discolor)
Blackberry (Rubus laciniatus)
Bouncing Bet (Saponaria officinalis)
Burdock (Arctium lappa and A. minor)
Buttonweed Mallow (Malva neglecta)
California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica)
Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Catnip (Nepeta cataria)
Centaury (Centaurium erythraea)
Chickweed (Stellaria media)
Chicory (Cichorium intybus)
Clary Sage (Salvia sclarea)
Cleavers (Galium aparine)
Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium)
Comfrey, Russian (Symphytum x uplandicum)
Creeping Charlie (Glecoma hederacea)
Cudweed, Marsh (Gnaphalium uliginosum)
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)
Dodder (Cuscuta sp.)
English Daisy (Bellis perennis)
Evening Primrose (Oenethera biennis)
Filaree (Erodium cicutaria)
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) ~
Goat's Rue  (Galega officinalis)
Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna)
Hemlock (Conium maculatum)
Henbane, Black (Hyocyamus niger)
Henbit (Lamium purpureum) 
Hops (Humulus lupulus)
Horehound (Marrubium vulgare)
Horseweed (Conyza canadensis)
Hounds's Tongue (Cynoglossum officinale)
Knapweed (Centaurea sp.)
Knotweed, Prostrate (Polygonum aviculare)
Knotweed, Japanese (Polygonum cuspidatum, syn. Fallopia japonica) ~+)
Knotweed, Giant (Polygonum sachalinense)
Lambsquarters (Chenopodium album)
Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis)
Milk Thistle (Silybum marianum)
Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca)
Mullein (Verbascum thapsus)
Mustard (Brassica sp.)
Nettles (Uritica dioica var. dioica)
Nettle, Annual (Urtica urens)
Oxeye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum (okay, Leucanthemum vulgare)
Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium)
Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
Pepperweed (Lepidum latifolium)
Periwinkle (Vinca minor, V. major) ~
Pineapple Weed (Matricara matricariodes)
Plantain (Plantago lanceolata, P. major)
Puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris)
Purple Deadnettle (Lamium amplexicaule)
Purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
Quackgrass (Elytrigia repens)
Red Clover (Trifolium pratense)
Russian Olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia)
Salsify (Tragopogon dubius)
Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) ~
Sheep Sorrel (Rumex acetosella)
Shepherds Purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris)
Spearmint (Mentha spicata)
St John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum)
Sulphur Cinquefoil (Potentilla recta) ~
Sweet Clover (Melilotus officinalis)
Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare)
Teasel (Dipsacus fullonum, syn. D. sylvestris)
Toadflax, Yellow, Butter-and-eggs (Linaria vulgaris) ~
Toadflax, Dalmatian (Linaria dalmatica var. dalmatica) ~
Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) ~
Vervain, Blue (Verbena hastata)
Watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquatica)
Wild Carrot (Daucus carota)
Wild Lettuce (Lactuca serriola)
Wormwood (Artemisia absynthium)
Yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. millefolium)
Yellow Dock (Rumex crispus)

 

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